This article discusses the significance and role of silver vessels in the daily life of the Iberia-Colchis population in Late antiquity . The work is part of doctoral research aimed at studying the culture of the Iberia-Colchis population, their social life, and their involvement in international relations through the study and analysis of a particular group of archaeological material - precious metal vessels.

The archaeological material under study, which was discovered mostly in the past century, has been featured in numerous scholarly works (Chologauri, 2024; Shatberashvili, 2007; Ramishvili, 2018, 1983, 1979, 1972; Gagoshidze et al., 2014; Gagoshidze, 2013; Gigolashvili, 2011; Inanishvili, 2007; Ramishvili, 1999; Machabeli, 1983; Mtskheta I; Odisheli, 2014; Braund et al., 2009; Harper et al., 1981; Shatberashvili, 2024; Tschubinashwili, 1925; Мачабели, 1976, 1970, and others). Each study is highly significant for understanding Georgia's silverware production in antiquity, as they provide detailed artistic and stylistic analysis of objects, typology, chronology, origin, parallels, and extensive descriptions of their archaeological context. However, the socio-political aspect of the research on this material is rarely explored in these monographs and articles. Since the 1970s and 80s, no comprehensive study of Georgia's entire collection of late antique silver vessels has been carried out, despite the addition of several major discoveries to the silverware corpus. Therefore, this doctoral research represents the first attempt to examine the complete collection of silver vessels from Late Antiquity within a broad historical and socio-political context. I believe that this study, which integrates material analysis, relevant academic literature, written sources, quantitative and qualitative methods, and other modern research techniques, will introduce several important innovations to the study of Iberia-Colchis in Late Antiquity.

Silver and Its Significance in the Ancient World

The significance and value of silver in both prehistoric and ancient worlds were determined by the scarcity of this metal and the difficulty of its extraction. Silver, as an independent metal ore, is found in very limited quantities in nature, and its extraction is mostly possible during the processing of other metals, particularly lead, gold, and copper ores (Craddock, 2014, pp. 1085-1092). Accordingly, from prehistoric times, the low intensity of silver extraction and the complexity of processing techniques particularly increased the value of this raw material (Hobbs, 2006: 6). From the 6th-5th centuries BC, silver became the main raw material for silverware and coin production, and soon its production reached particular significance.

In Late Antiquity, silver vessels played a significant role in the social life, religious customs and beliefs, as well as in the commercial, economic, and political relations of both the powerful Roman and Iranian empires (Leader-Newby, 2004, p. 7; Trever et al., 1987, p. 38; Canepa, 2009, p. 158). Silver tableware was actively used in the daily life of nobles, at banquets held in their courts, and during ceremonial and religious services (Hobbs, 2021, pp. 137-138; Leader-Newby, 2004, pp. 2-3). During military campaigns, long-distance travel, or military actions, wealthy Romans and high-ranking military officials would carry silver vessels with them (Leader-Newby, 2004, p. 4). Vessels displayed on tables had not only functional but also demonstrative significance, serving as indicators of wealth. For this reason, pieces adorned with intricate, decorative relief images were produced. Silver was also used to make accessories for nobles’ washbasins and baths.

Besides the domestic use, silver objects also served as monetary units. Weight inscriptions on vessels and sometimes specially divided units into separate measurements indicate their monetary use (Leader-Newby, 2004, pp. 2-3; Hunter, 2022, pp. 334-336). Also noteworthy is the ritual purpose of precious metal vessels, evidenced by complexes of silver vessels dedicated by kings and nobles to various temples (e.g., the 'Berthouville Treasure' dedicated to the god Mercury; Lapatin, 2020, p. 108). From the fourth century, with the proclamation of Christianity as Rome's official religion, a new group appeared in silverware, which we refer to as ecclesiastical silver vessels.

Most importantly, another role of the material under study is its function as diplomatic gifts. In Rome and Iran, silver vessels decorated with royal portraits, inscriptions, and various decorative images served as diplomatic gifts sent to temples, individual persons, subjects, and rulers of other countries (Scriptores Historiae Augustae, III; Hobbs, 2021, pp. 139-143; Trever et al., 1987, p. 38). Along with written sources, this idea is supported by numerous artifacts found beyond the central regions of the empires and on their outskirts.

Silver Production and Import in Georgia

The geopolitical dynamics of the Caucasus and the influence of Roman and Eastern cultures in the area shaped Iberia-Colchis's involvement in modern trends. In addition to external factors, the advanced local silver production in Late Antiquity was likely driven by the metallurgical traditions of ancient Georgian tribes. These tribes, renowned as exceptional experts in metal extraction and processing, are frequently mentioned in the writings of ancient authors (Strabo XII, 3, 19-20; Homer, Iliad, II, 856; Xenophon, Anabasis, V, 5. 1-2; Apol. Rodos., Argonaut., 2; Inanishvili, 2014, pp. 9-24; Tavadze et al., 1954, pp. 6-11). Evidence of silver production in Georgia from prehistoric times is supported not only by historical texts but also by Bronze Age silverware artifacts and archaeologically excavated metallurgical centers (Racha, Lower Kartli; Inanishvili, 2014, pp. 48-83; Dvali, 1977: 70-71; Gobejishvili, 1966, pp.16-20; Gobejishvili, 1952, pp. 183-190; Tavadze et al., 1954, pp. 6-11). As in the known deposits of ancient Greece, Rome, and Iran, silver is present within polymetallic (lead, copper, and zinc) smelting systems and is primarily found on the southern slopes of the Central Caucasus and in the Lesser Caucasus range.

The extraction and production of silver in ancient Iberia (6th century BC – 6th century AD) and Colchis is also supported by artistic, stylistic, and chemical analyses of glyptics, silverware, and small plastic art examples (Kalandadze et al., 2020, pp. 302-308; Inanishvili, 2014, pp. 84-89; and his 2007, p. 51, table 1; Poporidze et al., 2007, pp. 81-86; Parjanadze et al., 2017, pp. 46-47; Gamkrelidze, 2009, pp. 206-210). However, we would like to point out that silver materials from Georgia, both from prehistoric times and Classical Antiquity, have been mainly studied from a technological perspective, with only a few cases involving chemical analysis of raw materials. Therefore, future research should focus on this area.

Collection of Silver Vessels from the 1st-4th Centuries AD from Georgia (Quantitative-Qualitative Analysis)

Georgia is notable for its numerous Late Antique silverware pieces because most specimens have been found through archaeological excavations, while examples preserved in various world collections mainly originate without archaeological context. This material, mostly discovered in burial sites, helps us determine their date, function, and significance.

Within the scope of the doctoral research, using artistic-stylistic analysis of the material, studying the archaeological context, and applying the comparative method, the chronological range of silver vessels from the examined period found in Georgia was established. The material mostly dates to the 1st-4th centuries AD, with the majority from the 2nd-3rd centuries. The only recent example in the collection is a Sasanian silver bowl discovered in Chermiskhevi, dating to the 6th-7th centuries AD (Gagoshidze et al., 2014, p. 341-350).

Based on the typological method, the silverware collection was divided into three main groups according to cultural attribution: 1. Roman import; 2. Sasanian import; 3. Local production, which includes several subgroups: a) works created under the influence of Roman silverware; b) works created under the influence of Parthian-Sasanian silverware; c) vessels that combine elements of Iberian, Parthian, Sasanian, Roman, and Alano-Sarmatian cultures.

Based on quantitative analysis, which relies on data currently available to us,  more than 150 pieces of silverware originate from thirty different archaeological sites across the country (Figure 1). 

Figure 1. Archaeological sites containing silver vessels from Georgia (1st-6th centuries AD).

From a geographical perspective, archaeological sites are divided into two main groups: Colchian and Iberian. Material concentration is greater in the territory of the Kingdom of Iberia.  Archaeological sites containing silver vessels are located at: Armaziskhevi, Bagineti, Samtavro cemetery, Mtskheta (Svetitskhoveli courtyard), Tbilisi (S. Euli Street), Avchala, Aragvispiri cemetery, Zhinvali, Magraneti (Kushanant Gora cemetery), Chermiskhevi, Tskhinvali, Aghaiani (Rikianebi’s Valley cemetery), Khovle, Zghuderi, Sargveshi, Bori, Kldeeti, Kvashkhieti, Gomi (Racha), Modinakhe fortress, Bichvinta (Pityunt), Achmarda, Shubara (Sokhumi Municipality), Tagiloni, Bandza, Khaishi (Svaneti), Tsikhisdziri (Petra), Ureki, Khelvachauri (Kapandibi), and Gonio.

As noted, these archaeological sites are primarily the burial sites for nobility. Unfortunately, material from several cemeteries such as the Bori and Tagiloni treasures, as well as discoveries from Sargveshi, Tsikhisdziri, Ureki, Tskhinvali, and Gomi, were either chance finds or obtained by treasure hunters, which makes their archaeological context unclear. However, the burial complexes that have been systematically studied—such as Armaziskhevi, Bagineti, Samtavro, Aragvispiri, Zhinvali, Magraneti, Zghuderi, and others—enable us to examine important issues like burial dates, cultural and social attributions, burial rituals, the timing of individual objects' placement in graves, their functions, and more.

Social Attribution

Wealthy burials containing silver vessels are always associated with noble burials. Currently, the widely accepted view is that burials containing silver vessels undoubtedly belonged to representatives of the ruling elite, Pitiakhshes, Eristavis, and members of the royal family. It appears that family members of officials were also buried with no less honor, as evidenced by wealthy children's burials (Apakidze et al., 1996: 8-9; Bokhochadze, 1981: 34; Ramishvili et al., 1972, p. 46; Shatberashvili, 2024, p. 176; Mtskheta I, 1955, p. 40).  However, to determine what specific rank we are dealing with, a detailed study and comparative analysis of archaeological sites and excavated material is most important.

The silver cup found in Bori at the beginning of the twentieth century, whose inscription mentions “Buzmihr Pitiakhsh,” laid the foundation for the idea that the Pitiakhsh burials were located there. The discoveries at Armaziskhevi in the 1940s clarified that this was the cemetery of rulers of the Kingdom of Iberia. Evidence for this includes not only portraits and inscriptions of historical figures preserved on silverware and glyptic material (Bersuma Pitiakhsh, Asparug Pitiakhsh, Papak Pitiakhsh, King Flavius Dades), but also the burial type itself (Figure 2: 1-2), burial ritual, and other burial inventory, among which insignia should be noted: diadem, bracelet, insignia belt (Mtskheta I, 1955, pp. 184-207). The stone sarcophagus at Bagineti the royal residence, must also be the burial place of a young member of the ruling elite (royal family?) - in which, along with other wealthy material, a silver bowl with the portrait of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius was found (Apakidze et al., 1973, pp. 59-65; Nikolaishvili, 2011, p. 53). Ruling figures of Mtskheta or members of the royal family must also have been buried in Samtavro's tomb N905 (Dighmelashvili, 2022, pp. 217-219; Apakidze et al., 1996, pp. 5-80). I consider the attribution of wealthy burials represented by stone tombs and stone sarcophagiin Iberia's capital to Iberian Pitiakhshes and the members of the royal family is beyond doubt. However, what can we say about other wealthy burials containing silver vessels, which have been found at more than twenty locations across Georgia? Of particular interest are those sites where burial inventory similar to Armaziskhevi and Bagineti has been found, and in individual cases, silverware and glyptic material decorated with inscriptions, though large stone sarcophagi are not found. These include: Bori, Zghuderi, Sargveshi, Aragvispiri, Magraneti, Zhinvali cemeteries, and others.

Figure 2. Stone sarcophagi from Armaziskhevi (1-2) according to Mtskheta I, fig. 45, 60 and from Khovle (3) drawing by Domizziana Rossi according to Shatberashvili 2024, pl. I.

Besides Mtskheta, sarcophagi are archaeologically confirmed only at Zghuderi, Urbnisi, and Khovle. However, Zghuderi's sarcophagi are made of wood (coffins?), while those of Urbnisi are made of clay (Braund et al., 2009, pp. 7-9). A stone sarcophagus outside Mtskheta has been found only at Khovle (Figure 2, p. 3). It represented the burial of a local noblewoman (Shatberashvili, 2024, p. 181; Shatberashvili, 2007, pp. 87-96). What social status the Khovle nobles should have had during this period is still unknown. A wooden burial chamber covered with clay tiles is recorded at Magraneti's Kushanant Gora cemetery (Ramishvili, 1979, pp. 30-31). Bori's burials damaged by treasure hunters, based on all available data, must have been pit graves (Bragvadze, 2021, p. 97; Pridik, 1914, pp. 4-5). Mainly pit graves are found at Aragvispiri and Akhali Zhinvali, Modinakhe, Kldeeti, Sargveshi, Aghaiani, Ureki, Tsikhisdziri, and other cemeteries (Ramishvili, 2018, pp. 86, 193; Ramishvili et al., 1972, pp. 43-50; Ramishvili, 1983; Bokhochadze, 1981; Nadiradze, 1975; Lomtatidze, 1957; Tchubinaschwili et al., 1925, pp. 83-85; Inaishvili, 1993, pp. 5-35; Khoshtaria, 1962; Khoshtaria, 1955, pp. 52-54; Puturidze, 1959, pp. 54-94; Amiranashvili, 1935). Bandza's wealthy burial represented a kvevri burial (presumably a warrior's burial), while Khaishi and Gonio treasures were treasures placed under stones and in metal vessels (Makalatia, 1928, pp. 161-188; Javakhishvili, 1958, pp. 148-158; Odisheli, 2014, pp. 186-196).

Based on the differences in burial types, the view has been expressed that despite similarities in burial inventory, not a single wealthy burial found outside Mtskheta belonged to a person of the Pitiakhsh rank, but rather to a local Eristavis or representatives of the advanced class, for whom the vessels found in burials were granted by the King of Kartli or/and Pitiakhsh residing in Mtskheta (Bragvadze, 2021, pp. 93-98). Ramin Ramishvili had a different view. He attributed the wealthy burials at Aragvispiri, Zhinvali, Magraneti, Bori, and other synchronous cemeteries to representatives of Pitiakhsh rank, explaining the different burial types (pit burials, wooden sarcophagi) by social, ethnic, and religious factors (Ramishvili, 2018, pp. 132-135; 193-195). He believed that the deceased's social status was determined not by burial type but by the insignia placed in it, considering such items as bed or throne leg coverings, insignia belts, rings, braclets, and the tradition of placing horses in graves (Ramishvili, 2018, pp. 193-194). Archaeologist Jurkha Nadiradze attributed Modinakhe's wealthy pit burials to heavily armed middle-class aristocracy. In his opinion, the deceased's activity should have been service to Eristavis and campaigning for them (Nadiradze, 1975, p. 74). Zurab Bragvadze believed that representatives of a certain administrative unit should have been buried at Modinakhe cemetery, as indicated by the insignia confirmed in burials N36 and N66 - iron bracelets decorated with gold and a gold diadem (Bragvadze, 2021, p. 54).

Inscribed examples containing personal names are important in researching the social attribution of wealthy burials and the silver vessels placed in them (Figure 3). For example, Buzmihr Pitiakhsh's silver bowl, inscribed in Aramaic, gives researchers grounds to assume the existence of a Pitiakhsh center in Bori, while Buzmihr is considered a local Pitiakhsh (Figure 3: 1; Bragvadze, 2021, pp. 76, 93-105; Bakhtadze, 2003, pp. 42-43; Tskitishvili, 1964, pp. 87-96). King Flavius Dades and Bersuma Pitiakhsh are mentioned on a silver platter  found in Armaziskhevi burial N3 (Figure 3: 2). Prince Trdat is mentioned in the inscription on a silver dish found in Samtavro's  tomb N905 (Apakidze et al., 1996, pp. 13-14). The assumption of a Pitiakhsh's existence has also been expressed in connection with Zghuderi's discoveries, since one cup there, similar to Bersuma Pitiakhsh's cup, preserves a similar Greek inscription word "I grant" (Figure 3: 3; Braund et al., 2009, p. 34).

Of particular importance for social attribution are Papak Pitiakhsh's dish  from Armaziskhevi inscribed in Aramaic (Figure 3: 1), a cup (kylix) with the portrait of Sasanian shah Bahram II from Sargveshi (Figure 3: 2), bowls with portraits of Antinous and Emperor Hadrian (?) from Armaziskhevi (Figure 4: 2, 4), Marcus Aurelius's bowl  from Bagineti (Figure 4: 1), a drinking vessel decorated with Greek inscriptions of King Pakur/Pakorus (King of Lazica?) from Achmarda (Abkhazia), silver plates with Sasanian kings' hunting scenes from villages Shubara and Krasnaya Polyana (both preserved in Sokhumi Museum), and various vessels from Zghuderi and Mtskheta with engraved personal names (Tchubinaschwili, 1925, pp. 83-86; Harper et al., 1981, pp. 24-30; Braund, 1994, p. 242; Machabeli, 1976, pp. 106-121; Mtskheta I, 1955, pp. 40-46; Vinogradov et al., 2013, pp. 60-67; Gyselen, 2016, pp. 61-68).

Figure 3. 1) Buzmihr Pitiakhsh's  bowl from Bori. Photo: according to Pridik 1914, fig. 1. Inscription: according to Preud'homme 2022: fig. 25; 2) Bersuma Pitiakhsh's platter. Photo: L. Chologauri © Georgian National Museum. Drawing: according to Mtskheta I. fig. 26; 3) Platter from Zghuderi. According to Braund et al., 2009, pp. 34-35. 

The silverware examples listed above prove that silver vessels were sent as diplomatic gifts both from Rome and Iran to the rulers of Iberia-Colchis, and from local kings and Pitiakhshes to their subordinate Eristavis and officials. Written sources also provide information about the exchange of diplomatic gifts between Roman emperors and the King of Iberia/Kartli (Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, I, 17; Essays vol. I, pp. 529-530). We think that one group of silverware found on Georgian territory reflects international and local diplomatic relations. Individual silver vessels should also be connected to commercial-economic relations and Roman garrisons stationed in Colchis's Black Sea coast, as they were active importers and consumers of Roman imports.

Figure 4. 1) Papak Pitiakhsh's dish. Photo: L. Chologauri © Georgian National Museum. Drawing: according to Mtskheta I, fig. 21; 2) Sargveshi kylix/cup. According to Machabeli 1983, pp. 58-59 and Harper et al., 1981, pl. 2.

Function and Significance

Based on the artistic-stylistic analysis of silver vessels, the search for parallels, and established opinions in scholarly literature, we can consider that richly ornamented pieces decorated with complex relief images and royal portraits primarily served a display/exhibition function. Such examples should include the imported silver bowls with portraits of Tyche Fortuna, Marcus Aurelius, Papak Pityakhsh, Antinous and a bearded man (Emperor Hadrian?), as well as those with gilded eagle imagery and others (Figure 4). The locally manufactured ewers from Aragvispiri decorated with relief hunting scenes should have served the same function (Figure 6: 4; Ramishvili, 2018, p. 149).

Unlike the richly ornamented display pieces, practical purposes should have been served by silver spoons, ladles, dishes, cups, deep bowls, ewers and pitchers decorated with relatively simple ornamental designs (Figure 5). It appears that representatives of the local ruling circles kept pace with the trends of the world of the Late Antiquity, and a certain portion of their tableware was also made of silver.

Figure 4. Silver bowls from Bagineti, Armaziskhevi and Aragvispiri. Photos by L. Chologauri © National Museum of Georgia. 2nd-3rd centuries CE.

Figure 5. 1) Silver spoons from Bagineti; 2) ladles from Bagineti and Zghuderi; 3) plate from Aragvispiri; 4) plate from Bagineti. 2nd-3rd centuries CE. Photos by L. Chologauri © National Museum of Georgia.

The study of archaeological data is crucial for examining the function of silverware, since the necessary information on this issue is not found in contemporary written sources. Burial sites provide clear evidence that silver vessels, in addition to their domestic and display functions, had a defined role in the burial rituals of the country's rulers and nobles. Depositing silver vessels in the graves of distinguished individuals appears to have been a significant tradition in Georgia in Late Antiquity. Detailed analysis of graves helps us determine the function of specific objects in burial rituals. In this regard, the tradition of placing silver ewers in pairs is noteworthy, which has been recorded at several cemeteries (Armaziskhevi, Samtavro, Magraneti, Aragvispiri and others; Chologauri, 2024, pp. 75-94). The almost identical ewers filled with liquid (presumably wine) were supposedly always placed near the head of the deceased in a vertical position (Chologauri, 2024, pp. 75-87).  In graves containing ewers, we always find at least one silver bowl, which suggests that a commemorative ritual for the deceased's soul was performed using ewers and bowls, after which they were placed in the grave (Chologauri, 2024, p. 87). The silver ewers of standardized size, form and proportions are clearly Iberian products, and their quantity (16 pieces in total) speaks to the special significance of this form of vessel (Figure 6; Chologauri, 2024, pp. 84-86).

Figure 6. Iberian silver ewers from Armaziskhevi (1), Samtavro (2), Magraneti (3) and Aragvispiri (4). 2nd-3rd centuries CE. Photos by L. Chologauri © National Museum of Georgia.

Another function of silver vessels in burial rituals is interesting: resting the deceased's head on the bowl. This tradition is recorded at several cemeteries (Aragvispiri, Zghuderi, Modinakhe, Zhinvali cemeteries; Ramishvili, 2018, p. 88; Ramishvili et al., 1972, p. 46; Nadiradze, 1975, p. 70; Braund et al., 2009, p. 7). Here, we should also note the practice of placing bones on a silver platter during secondary burial rites (the grave of Bersuma Pityakhsh, Armaziskhevi; Mtskheta I, 1955, pp. 46-47).

Conclusion

As shown, during Late Antiquity, members of the ruling elite in Iberia and Colchis were involved in international relations and kept up with contemporary trends. It is likely, that a large portion of the imported silver vessels discovered in Georgian territory arrived through diplomatic channels. However, this does not rule out the possibility that some silver vessels were introduced to Iberia and Colchis through trade and economic exchanges.

The fact that locally manufactured silverware examples coexisted alongside imported ones once again highlights the significance of precious metal vessels among the populations of Iberia and Colchis. Local products influenced by Roman  and Iranian silverware demonstrate that there was a high demand for these luxury items among the upper social classes, and that local workshops and skilled craftsmen met the needs of the local market with pieces that aligned with contemporary standards.

Finally, we want to emphasize that aside from the issues discussed above, the  Georgia's Late Antique silverware collection  plays a crucial role in understanding the geopolitical events of the Caucasus. During the centuries-long conflict between Rome and Iran over control of the Caucasus, the rulers of the kingdoms of Iberia and Lazica played a key role. Through strategic diplomatic manoeuvring, they compelled both Roman emperors and Iranian shahs to approach their relations with great caution, seeking to preserve peace and safeguard their empires from devastating raids by peoples from the North Caucasus. Examples of silver vessels directly reflect these political relations. This topic will be explored extensively in the final phase of the doctoral research, in the dissertation.

Silver and Society: The Function and Significance of Luxury Vessels in Iberia and Colchis (1st-4th centuries CE)

Summary

This article is part of doctoral research exploring various aspects of the culture, society, and international relations of Colchis and Iberia (modern-day Georgia in the Caucasus) through the analysis of a specific group of archaeological objects -silver vessels. Although there has been a notable increase in silverware discoveries since the 1970s and 80s, a comprehensive study of Georgia's late antique silverware collection has not been conducted in recent decades. Therefore, this research represents a pioneering effort to understand these artifacts within their historical, cultural, and socio-political contexts.

In Late Antiquity,  silverware held great importance across empires, symbolizing wealth and social status in both the Roman and Iranian worlds. Silver tableware was common in the daily lives of the nobility. Additionally, heavily decorated silver vessels often served to display wealth, highlighting their owners' prosperity. These items also played key roles in religious rituals, burial ceremonies, and diplomatic exchanges. Georgia, located at the crossroads of influential empires, reflects these patterns; a significant collection of silver vessels has been discovered, especially in elite burial sites, confirming the region's participation in international cultural exchanges. This collection, carefully excavated by archaeologists, is exceptional because many similar artifacts in global collections lack such archaeological context. The vessels found in wealthy burials provide important evidence  for their age, purpose, and symbolic meanings.

Through detailed analysis using artistic-stylistic evaluations, contextual comparisons, and chronological assessments, this research identifies three primary categories of Georgian silverware: Roman imports, Sasanian imports, and locally produced items. Local products include several sub-categories that combine stylistic elements from Roman, Partho-Sasanian, North Caucasian, and local traditions. In total, about one hundred and fifty silver items have been discovered at thirty archaeological sites across Georgia, mostly from noble burials, indicating they belonged to the elite. These burials, often linked to high-ranking officials and members of the royal family, offer insight into the social hierarchy, as evidenced by inscriptions on some vessels.

Epigraphic material is crucial for analyzing the social significance of luxurious burials and their silver vessels, especially items inscribed with specific names. For example, although Buzmihr Pityakhsh's silver platter lacks inscriptions, its connection to the 'bidaxš' institution in Bori suggests Buzmihr may have been a local Pityakhsh (bidaxš; Bragvadze, 2021: 76, 93-105; Bakhtadze, 2003: 42-43; Tskitishvili, 1964: 87-96). The existence of a bidaxš institution is further indicated by the Zghuderi finds, including a dish similar to that of Bersuma Pityakhsh of Armaziskhevi, with a Greek inscription meaning "gifting." Significant pieces include the portrait cup of Sasanian Shah Bahram II from Sargveshi, the Aramaic-inscribed Papak Pityakhsh dish from Armaziskhevi, bowls featuring portraits of Hadrian(?) and Antinous, a Marcus Aurelius pinax from Baginet, the Achmarda cup inscribed with King Pacourus’s/Pacour’s name, silver plates from Sukhumi and Krasnaya Polyana depicting Sasanian hunting scenes, and various vessels from Zguderi and Mtskheta with scratched personal names.

Based on this study, it became evident that silverware played multiple roles within Iberian and Colchian societies. Items of high status, featuring royal portraits such as those of Sasanian King Bahram II, Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and Hadrian (?), as well as pieces decorated with intricate reliefs, were likely intended for ceremonial display. Practical vessels, including spoons, ladles, bowls, and cups with more straightforward designs, reflect the daily luxury experienced by the local elite.

Additionally, the frequent inclusion of silverware in burial sites highlights its ceremonial significance in funerary rituals. In Iberian noble burials, the placement of paired ewers, likely filled with liquid, near the deceased's head suggests rituals involving offering libations. Evidence shows that silver bowls were used to position the deceased's head, while large dishes served in secondary burials for the placement of bones.

The collection of silverware from Colchis and Iberia shows Georgia's active role in diplomatic relations, with imported silverware probably arriving through political ties with Rome and Iran. Examples of silverware exchanged as diplomatic gifts from both empires highlight the significance of these relationships, as seen in historical sources mentioning interactions between Emperor Hadrian and the Iberian king. However, trade and economic exchanges also likely played a role in bringing in silver vessels. Additionally, the presence of locally made silverware, inspired by Roman and Iranian styles, indicates not only a high demand among Iberian nobility but also the existence of skilled local artisans creating luxury items that met contemporary standards.

Thus, the late antique silverware collection from Georgia shows a society that was not only connected to larger geopolitical trends but also shaped by international exchanges and cultural influences. This unique mix of imported and locally made silver objects illustrates a lively, interconnected culture within the Kingdom of Iberia, where silver vessels were valued as symbols of wealth, authority, and ritual importance.